Early Origins, Ethnogenesis, Theories of Scandinavian Origin

The Heruli (Latin: Heruli, Greek: Ἕρουλοι) were a Germanic-speaking people first noted by Roman chroniclers in the third century CE. Their earliest origins remain obscure, but several ancient and modern scholars have connected them to Scandinavia. Procopius of Caesarea, writing in the sixth century, claimed that after their kingdom in the Balkans collapsed, a group of Heruli returned to their "homeland" in the north, which he placed beyond the Danes. This may hint at a long-standing tradition—or myth—of Scandinavian origin, possibly aligning them with other seaborne Germanic groups such as the Goths.

However, archaeological and linguistic evidence does not firmly confirm this northern connection. The theory remains debated among historians, with some suggesting that the idea of northern origin may reflect a stylized trope used by Roman historians to explain the emergence of "barbarian" groups from beyond the Rhine-Danube frontier.

First Appearances in Roman Sources

The Heruli enter the historical record in the mid-third century CE. Roman authors like Zosimus and Dexippus describe them as pirates and marauders active along the Black Sea and Aegean coasts. Around 267–270 CE, they joined large-scale raids into Roman territory, sailing as far as Byzantium and even Greece. These incursions positioned the Heruli as one of the more notorious "barbarian" threats during the Crisis of the Third Century.

Invasions and Raids in the Roman World

Swilcza Hoard (Photo: Silar CC BY-SA 4.0).

The Danube Incursions

The Heruli are most prominently associated with naval raids during the tumultuous third century. Allied with the Goths and other groups, they participated in a massive incursion into Roman territory across the lower Danube frontier. Their targets included cities along the Black Sea and the Balkans. The Heruli were particularly noted for their swiftness and their ability to appear in unexpected locations via riverine or maritime routes.

The Sack of Byzantium (267 CE)

In one of their most significant actions, a coalition including the Heruli sacked parts of Byzantium and advanced into southern Greece. According to ancient sources, they ravaged the Peloponnese and laid waste to regions that had not seen war for centuries. The Romans, under Emperor Gallienus and later Claudius II Gothicus, repelled the invaders in several costly battles. Though the Heruli were not the largest group involved, their name became strongly associated with the ferocity of these raids.

Integration, Defeat, and Displacement

Collapse at the Hands of the Ostrogoths

By the early fifth century, the Heruli had been overshadowed by larger confederations, especially the Ostrogoths. According to the Getica of Jordanes, the Heruli were decisively defeated by the Ostrogoths under Ermanaric, who ruled over a vast Gothic realm before the Hunnic invasion. Following this defeat, many Heruli dispersed into other regions or were absorbed by stronger tribes.

Mercenary Service in East and West

Despite the collapse of their early political power, the Heruli did not vanish. Instead, they became known as elite warriors-for-hire. Herulian contingents served in both the Western and Eastern Roman armies. In some cases, they were deployed as foederati (federated troops) or imperial guards. Notably, Heruli units fought alongside Odoacer, the Germanic general who deposed the last Western Roman emperor in 476 CE.

Procopius records Herulian participation in the campaigns of Belisarius under Justinian I in the sixth century. Their reputation as mercenaries outlasted their independent political structures, and they were frequently employed for their martial skill and perceived loyalty.

The Heruli Kingdom in the Balkans

Reestablishment South of the Danube

After their earlier defeats, a group of Heruli managed to reestablish a small kingdom in the Balkans. This realm, though minor compared to the Gothic or Vandal kingdoms, maintained a degree of autonomy. Its center was likely situated in modern-day Hungary or Austria, within reach of Roman-controlled Pannonia.

The Byzantine Empire eventually recognized the Heruli as foederati, granting them land and autonomy in exchange for military service. While their kingdom was not extensively documented, it persisted for several generations.

Ambiguity under Byzantine Hegemony

By the mid-sixth century, the Heruli kingdom had disappeared, likely destroyed by rival tribes or assimilated by Slavic and Avar groups. Procopius claimed that many survivors migrated back to their ancestral homeland in the north, though modern historians are divided on the reliability of this claim. It may reflect Byzantine attempts to make sense of the disappearance of a once-prominent tribe.

Repatriation to Scandinavia

Map of the Eurli's migrations by Mac9, Wikicommons CC BY-SA 3.0).

Procopius’ Account and its Debates

The sixth-century historian Procopius provides the most detailed—though sometimes debated—account of the Heruli’s return to Scandinavia. According to his account, after the collapse of their kingdom in the Balkans, the Heruli sent envoys northward and later migrated en masse to a region beyond the Danes, rejoining related peoples in what he describes as their ancestral homeland.

While some modern scholars have questioned the reliability of this narrative, suggesting it may reflect literary tropes or misunderstandings, others accept it as a plausible reflection of a broader cultural memory shared among Germanic peoples. Given the Heruli’s clear linguistic and cultural ties to the wider Germanic world, a Scandinavian origin is consistent with both archaeological and historical patterns. Their reported return may simply reflect a reintegration into the broader Scandinavian stock—an act of reconnecting with kin groups from whom they had long been separated by centuries of southward migration—similar to how the Goths led multiple migrations to and from their homeland. Regardless of its precise details, the story underscores the Heruli’s enduring mobility and adaptability across the shifting frontiers of late antiquity.

Heruli Culture, Beliefs, and Legacy

Customs, Cremation, and Warrior Identity

The Heruli held a reputation as fearsome warriors and practiced a distinctive warrior culture. Jordanes and Procopius describe customs such as cremation of the dead and ritual suicide among widows, though these accounts may be influenced by Roman stereotypes of Germanic "barbarity." What is clearer is that Herulian identity remained tied to martial service, migratory flexibility, and a form of tribal loyalty that persisted even in exile or foreign service.

Reputation as Wanderers and Hired Swords

The Heruli's story is unusual among Germanic tribes in that they never established a large, long-lasting kingdom. Instead, they became renowned for their mobility and adaptability, moving from pirates and raiders to imperial mercenaries and foederati. Their name became shorthand in some sources for restlessness and martial independence.

Lasting Impressions in Later Traditions

Although the Heruli were ultimately absorbed by larger cultures and left no direct political legacy, echoes of their presence remain. They appear in Roman military records, in Byzantine histories, and in the archaeological record of the Danube basin. Their association with both Gothic and Scandinavian traditions—however ambiguous—has also linked them to the mythic tapestry of early medieval Europe, alongside the Vandals, Lombards, and others.

Conclusion

The Heruli exemplify the volatility and resilience of small tribes on the fringes of empires. Emerging as raiders and destroyers of cities, they became a people of mobility—drifting across the Roman world as both threat and ally. Their story spans centuries of upheaval, collapse, and adaptation. Though they never founded a great kingdom or left behind an enduring state, the Heruli left their mark through motion, conflict, and the adaptability that defined the late antique world. Whether originating from the forests of Scandinavia or formed along the Danube, they remain a haunting presence in the shadowlands between Rome and the Germanic frontier.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Where did the Heruli originally come from?

Ancient sources like Procopius suggest a Scandinavian origin, but historical and archaeological evidence points more likely to regions near the lower Danube.

Were the Heruli part of the Gothic migrations?

They were closely associated with the Goths during the third century but were a distinct tribe (much like the Vandals). Later, they were displaced by the Ostrogoths.

Did the Heruli establish a kingdom?

Yes, a minor Herulian kingdom existed in the Balkans during the fifth and sixth centuries, though it was short-lived and lacked large-scale power.

What was their role in the Roman Empire?

The Heruli were known for serving as mercenaries in both the Eastern and Western Roman armies, especially under generals like Odoacer and Belisarius.

What happened to the Heruli?

Their kingdom dissolved by the mid-sixth century. Some Heruli joined other groups, while others may have returned to Scandinavia as reported by Byzantine writers.

References

Procopius, History of the Wars, trans. H.B. Dewing (Loeb Classical Library)

Jordanes, Getica, trans. Charles Mierow (1921)

Walter Goffart, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006)

Peter Heather, Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe (Oxford University Press, 2009)

Guy Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West (Cambridge University Press, 2007)

Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples (University of California Press, 1997)