The Sagas of Olaf Tryggvason: King of Norway 995–1000 CE

Olaf Tryggvason (Óláfr Tryggvason, c. 960s–1000 CE) ruled as king of Norway from 995 to 1000 CE. He is remembered for his efforts to consolidate power in Norway and promote Christianity across the North Atlantic Norse world, including Norway, Iceland, the Faroes, Orkney, and Shetland. His reign was brief but eventful, marked by raids in England, internal Norwegian conflicts, and missionary activity that led to his portrayal in later sagas as a zealous converter.

Accounts of Olaf's life survive in several medieval Icelandic sagas and compilations, composed between the late 12th and 14th centuries CE. These texts draw on earlier Latin biographies and oral traditions. The main versions include Oddr Snorrason's Latin Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar (c. 1190s), Gunnlaugr Leifsson's lost Latin life, Snorri Sturluson's shorter account in Heimskringla (c. 1230 CE), and the expanded Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta (The Greatest Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, c. 1300–1400 CE). No contemporary Norwegian records exist; the sources are Icelandic, written 150–400 years after Olaf's death. Historical reliability varies: chronology aligns with some external evidence (e.g. English annals for raids), but many details reflect literary shaping and hagiographic tendencies. Uncertainties surround Olaf's early life, the extent of his conversion efforts, and the accuracy of specific events.

Historical Background and Reign

Olaf was born to Tryggvi Olafsson, a petty king in Viken (southeastern Norway), and Astrid Eiriksdottir. After his father's death, Olaf and his mother fled to Sweden and later to Novgorod (Garðaríki) under protection of Vladimir the Great. Captured by Estonian pirates as a child, he was sold into slavery but ransomed and raised in Russia before returning to Norway around 995 CE.

Jarl Erik's men boarding the Long Serpent before the Battle of Svolder (Illustration: Halfdan Egedius).

Olaf seized power after the death of Earl Hákon Sigurðarson (c. 995 CE), defeating rivals at the Battle of Svolder (c. 1000 CE) against a coalition led by Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark and Olaf Skötkonung of Sweden. He ruled from Nidaros (Trondheim) and conducted raids in England, including attacks on the southeast coast. His missionary work focused on Norway and the Norse colonies. He is credited with Iceland's formal acceptance of Christianity at the Althing in 999/1000 CE, though enforcement was gradual. The Faroes submitted under Sigmundur Brestisson (c. 999 CE), as narrated in Færeyinga saga. Orkney and Shetland also adopted Christianity during his reign.

Olaf died at Svolder, fighting a naval battle against superior forces. His death ended direct rule over a unified Norway for a time.

Early Latin Biographies

Two Latin lives of Olaf were composed in Iceland in the 1190s CE. Oddr Snorrason, a monk at Þingeyrar, wrote the first (Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar), preserved in an Old Norse translation (c. 1200 CE) in manuscripts such as AM 310 4to and Stock. Holm perg. 18 4to. Oddr's work, addressed to Gizurr Hallsson, portrays Olaf as a missionary king and martyr-like figure, drawing on oral sources and hagiographic models.

Gunnlaugr Leifsson, also a Þingeyrar monk, wrote a second Latin biography, now lost but used by later compilers. It expanded Oddr's account and influenced subsequent sagas. These Latin texts reflect the monastic interest in Olaf as a Christianiser, written amid Iceland's ongoing Christianisation.

'The Long Serpent', Olaf's drakkar ship (Illustration: Halfdan Egedius).

Snorri Sturluson's Account in Heimskringla

Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241 CE) included Olaf's saga in Heimskringla, his collection of Norwegian kings' sagas (c. 1230 CE). Snorri used Oddr's work as a primary source, supplemented by skaldic poetry and other traditions. His version is concise, focusing on Olaf's raids, conversion efforts, and death at Svolder. It appears in manuscripts such as Kringla (AM 35 fol., copies), Fríssbók (AM 45 fol.), and Jöfraskinna (copies in AM 37–38 fol.).

Snorri's narrative is more secular than the Latin lives, emphasising political and military aspects while retaining missionary elements. It forms the basis for many later retellings.

The Greatest Saga: Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta

The longest and most detailed version is Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta (ÓT), compiled in Iceland in the 14th century CE. It expands Snorri's Heimskringla account with material from Oddr, Gunnlaugr, Færeyinga saga, various þættir (short tales), and other sources. The compiler added narrative detail, including Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld's story and episodes from Iceland and the Faroes.

ÓT survives in Flateyjarbók (GkS 1005 fol., c. 1387–1394 CE), where it is interspersed with Olaf material, and in fragments from Bergsbók and AM 62 fol. The saga integrates Olaf's life into a broader framework, emphasising his role in Christianising peripheral Norse lands.

Coin of Olaf Tryggvasson (Illustration: Ole Andreas Øverland)

Manuscripts and Transmission

Key manuscripts include:

• Flateyjarbók (GkS 1005 fol.): contains the fullest ÓT, compiled by Jón Þórðarson and Magnús Þórhallsson.
• AM 310 4to: preserves Oddr's translated saga.
• Kringla and Fríssbók copies: transmit Snorri's Heimskringla version.

The saga tradition evolved through copying and interpolation, with 14th-century compilers adding material to glorify Olaf as a Christian king.

Historical Reliability and Scholarly Views

The sagas align with some external evidence (e.g. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for raids, Adam of Bremen for missionary activity), but many details are legendary or shaped by hagiographic and political agendas. Oddr and Gunnlaugr's Latin works aimed to present Olaf as a saintly converter; Snorri's version is more pragmatic. The expanded ÓT reflects later Icelandic interest in Olaf's legacy.

Scholars like Theodore M. Andersson (2003) note Oddr's influence on subsequent sagas. Ólafur Halldórsson (2006) reconstructed ÓT from manuscripts. Modern studies emphasise the texts' literary rather than strictly historical value, with conversion narratives serving didactic purposes.

Olaf Tryggvason's life and reign are preserved through a layered tradition of sagas and compilations, from the late 12th-century Latin biographies by Oddr Snorrason and Gunnlaugr Leifsson to Snorri Sturluson's concise account in Heimskringla and the expansive Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta in Flateyjarbók. These texts portray Olaf as a warrior-king who advanced Christianity in Norway and the North Atlantic, though shaped by Icelandic monastic and royal interests. While historical details remain uncertain, the saga compilations illustrate medieval Scandinavian historiography's development and the enduring memory of Olaf's short but transformative rule.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

When did Olaf Tryggvason rule Norway?

Olaf ruled from 995 to 1000 CE, until his death at the Battle of Svolder.

What are the main sources for his life?

The primary sources are Oddr Snorrason's Latin life (late 12th century), Gunnlaugr Leifsson's lost Latin biography, Snorri Sturluson's saga in Heimskringla (c. 1230 CE), and Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta (14th century).

How is the saga preserved?

No independent manuscript survives; the text exists in excerpts within Olaf sagas, primarily Flateyjarbók and related compilations.

What role did Olaf play in conversion?

Olaf promoted Christianity in Norway, Iceland (Althing decision 999/1000 CE), the Faroes, Orkney, and Shetland, though enforcement varied.

Why are there multiple versions?

Different authors and compilers added material for religious, political, or narrative purposes, resulting in shorter (Snorri) and expanded (en mesta) accounts.

References

Oddr Snorrason. The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason. Translated by Theodore M. Andersson. Cornell University Press, 2003.

Snorri Sturluson. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. Translated by Lee M. Hollander. University of Texas Press, 1964.

Flateyjarbók. Edited by Finnur Jónsson. Kristiania, 1900–1908.

Ólafur Halldórsson (ed.). Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta. Stofnun Árna Magnússonar, 2006.

Whaley, Diana. "Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta." In Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, edited by Phillip Pulsiano. Garland, 1993.

Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press, 2001.

Bagge, Sverre. From Viking Stronghold to Christian Kingdom: State Formation in Norway, c. 900–1350. Museum Tusculanum Press, 2010.