The Lombards: Shapers of Medieval Italy

The Lombards, or Langobardi ("long-beards" in Germanic), emerged as a distinct Germanic people in the 1st century CE along the lower Elbe River in northern Germany. Their early history is preserved in the "Origo Gentis Langobardorum" and Paul the Deacon's "Historia Langobardorum," though scholars debate the reliability of these sources' earliest accounts.

Archaeological evidence confirms Lombard settlements in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary and Austria) by the 6th century CE. Under King Audoin (546-560), the Lombards consolidated their power and developed crucial alliances with the Byzantine Empire against the Gepids, their primary rivals in the region.

The Migration to Italy: The Invasion Under Alboin, Early Conquest and Settlement

Lombard shield boss northern Italy, seventh century, Metropolitan Museum of Art

In 568 CE, King Alboin led the Lombards into Italy. This migration involved not only the Lombards but also significant numbers of Saxons, Gepids, Bulgars, Sarmatians, and other peoples who had joined the Lombard confederation. The timing proved fortuitous, as Italy had been severely weakened by the Gothic War (535-554) and a devastating plague in 542.

The Lombard conquest of Italy progressed rapidly. Within three years, they controlled much of northern Italy, establishing their capital at Pavia in 572. The Byzantine Empire retained control of Ravenna, Rome, and much of southern Italy, creating a divided peninsula that would characterize Italian geography for centuries.

The Lombard Kingdom: Political Structure, Religious and Cultural Evolution

Women look up to Wodan and Frea with their long hair tied to appear as beards. Inspired by the account of Wodan and Frea naming the Langobards from Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Photo: Emil Doepler))

The Lombard kingdom developed a unique political system combining Germanic tribal traditions with Roman administrative practices. The realm was divided into duchies (ducati), led by powerful dukes who maintained significant autonomy from the central authority. Major duchies included Spoleto and Benevento, which often operated semi-independently from the northern kingdom.

Initially adherents of Arian Christianity, the Lombards gradually converted to Catholic Christianity, a process accelerated under Queen Theodelinda (c. 570-628). This religious transformation facilitated their integration with the local Roman population and helped legitimize their rule in the eyes of the Catholic Church.

Society and Administration & Legal System

Distribution of Langobardic burial fields at the Lower Elbe Lands (according to W. Wegewitz)

Lombard society was stratified into distinct classes. The aristocracy consisted of the king, dukes, and gasindi (royal retainers). Below them were the free Lombards (arimanni), followed by semi-free persons (aldii), and slaves. Over time, this system evolved as the Lombards increasingly intermarried with the local Roman population.

King Rothari's Edict of 643 codified Lombard law, marking a significant milestone in Medieval legal history. This code combined Germanic customary law with Roman legal concepts, creating a sophisticated legal system that influenced later Medieval jurisprudence.

Cultural Achievements: Artistic Legacy, Literary Contributions

Lombard S-shaped fibula

The Lombards developed a distinctive artistic style, particularly evident in their metalwork, architecture, and stone sculpture. The "Lombard style" in architecture spread throughout Italy and influenced Romanesque architecture. Notable examples include the church of San Michele in Pavia and the Tempietto Longobardo in Cividale del Friuli.

Paul the Deacon's "Historia Langobardorum," written in the late 8th century, remains a crucial source for understanding not only Lombard history but also early Medieval Europe. The work combines historical narrative with cultural observations and folklore.

The Lombard kingdom fell to Charlemagne's Franks in 774, following appeals from Pope Adrian I. The conquest ended two centuries of Lombard rule in northern Italy, though the Duchy of Benevento remained independent until the 11th century.

Lombard warrior, bronze statue, eighth century, Pavia Civic Museums (Photo: Markkv CC BY-SA 4.0)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.      Why were the Lombards called "long-beards"?

The name likely derives from their traditional custom of wearing long beards, though some scholars suggest it might reference their long war-axes.

2.      How long did the Lombards rule Italy?

The Lombard kingdom lasted from 568 to 774 CE in northern Italy, while the Duchy of Benevento continued until the 11th century.

3.      What was the Lombards' religious background?

Originally pagans, they converted to Arian Christianity and later to Catholic Christianity.

4.      What major contributions did the Lombards make to Italian culture?

They contributed significantly to law, architecture, art, and the Italian language.

5.      Why did the Lombard kingdom fall?

Internal divisions and conflicts with the Papacy led to Frankish intervention under Charlemagne in 774.

References

Christie, Neil. (1998). "The Lombards: The Ancient Longobards"

Jarnut, Jörg. (2003). "Storia dei Longobardi"

Wickham, Chris. (1981). "Early Medieval Italy"

Paul the Deacon. "Historia Langobardorum"

Rothari's Edict (643 CE)