Ingólfr Arnarson: The Pioneering Settler Who Founded Iceland

During the late ninth century, Norse settlers began establishing permanent communities across Iceland, bringing Scandinavian languages, customs and political traditions into a previously sparsely inhabited North Atlantic island. Their arrival formed part of a wider movement of migration that extended from Norway and the British Isles to the Faroe Islands, Iceland and eventually Greenland.

Among the figures associated with this expansion, Ingólfr Arnarson occupies a particularly prominent position. Medieval Icelandic tradition identifies him as the first Norseman to establish a permanent settlement on the island, placing his farm in the area that would eventually become Reykjavík. His arrival is traditionally dated to around 874, marking the beginning of Iceland's landnám, or period of settlement.

Ingólfr's reputation rests largely on the accounts preserved in Íslendingabók and Landnámabók, medieval works that describe the origins of Icelandic society and the families who claimed its land. These accounts contain a mixture of historical information, genealogical tradition and narrative embellishment, but they preserve the memory of the people and events through which Icelanders understood the founding of their community.

Archaeological discoveries have independently established that Norse settlement began during the second half of the ninth century, including at Reykjavík itself. Although the precise circumstances of Ingólfr's arrival cannot be reconstructed in every detail, his association with Iceland's earliest settlement has remained central to the island's historical tradition.

Iceland Before the Norse Settlement

Iceland was one of the last large habitable islands in the North Atlantic to receive permanent settlement. Its location between Norway, the British Isles and Greenland placed it along maritime routes increasingly used by Scandinavian seafarers during the ninth century. Norse expansion into these waters had already established communities in the Shetland Islands, Orkney, the Hebrides and the Faroe Islands, creating networks through which settlers, livestock, goods and people could move westward.

Travels of the first Scandinavians in Iceland during the ninth century by Max Naylor.

The island offered substantial opportunities for those seeking new land. Its coastal valleys and lowlands provided pasture for sheep, cattle and horses, while rivers and surrounding waters supplied fish and other marine resources. Although Iceland's volcanic interior was largely unsuitable for permanent habitation, much of its coastline and lower valleys could sustain farming communities.

The settlement was not simply an isolated expedition into an unknown wilderness. Norse travellers already possessed considerable experience navigating the North Atlantic, and the establishment of communities in the Faroes and other islands provided both practical knowledge and a geographical stepping stone towards Iceland.

The Earlier Visitors

Iceland may have been visited before the arrival of the Norse settlers. In Íslendingabók, written by Ari Þorgilsson during the early twelfth century, the author mentions Christian hermits known as the Papar, who were said to have lived on the island before the Scandinavian settlement. According to Ari, they departed because they did not wish to remain among the newly arrived pagan population.

The Papar are traditionally associated with Irish Christian monks and hermits, whose maritime journeys carried them to remote islands throughout the North Atlantic. The Irish cleric Dicuil, writing around 825 in his geographical work De mensura orbis terrae, described islands far to the north and recorded information about religious travellers who had reached remote Atlantic locations. His account demonstrates that Irish ecclesiastical communities possessed knowledge of northern islands before the main period of Icelandic settlement.

The Papar tradition is therefore consistent with the wider activity of early medieval Christian seafarers. However, the extent of their presence in Iceland remains unclear. No archaeological evidence has yet established a substantial permanent Christian settlement predating the Norse arrival. Earlier visits by individual monks or small groups remain entirely plausible, but they should be distinguished from the organised agricultural settlement that followed.

The medieval Icelandic accounts also preserve the names of Scandinavian travellers who reached the island before Ingólfr. Garðar Svavarsson, a Swedish-born traveller, was said to have been driven towards Iceland by adverse weather and to have circumnavigated its coastline. He reportedly spent a winter there before returning towards Scandinavia.

Another figure, Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson, is remembered for deliberately sailing to Iceland with the intention of settling. According to Landnámabók, Flóki brought livestock and companions, but a difficult winter and the loss of much of his livestock persuaded him to abandon the attempt. The account associates him with the name Ísland, meaning "Land of Ice", which became the island's enduring name.

These earlier voyages belong to the traditional history of Iceland's discovery. They also illustrate an important distinction: reaching the island did not necessarily mean establishing a lasting community. Ingólfr's significance lies in his association with the permanent Norse settlement that followed.

Ingólfr Arnarson and His Origins

Ingólfr is traditionally described as a Norwegian chieftain who left Scandinavia during the period of expanding Norse settlement in the North Atlantic. His name appears in Íslendingabók, where Ari Þorgilsson identifies him as Ingólfr Árnason and records him as the first permanent settler to establish himself in Iceland. The familiar form Arnarson became established in later historical usage.

Painting by Scar Wergeland

The medieval sources provide little reliable information about his early life. They associate him with Norway, but details concerning his precise birthplace, ancestry and position within the Norwegian political landscape remain difficult to establish. His status as a prominent settler is nevertheless consistent with the social character of Iceland's early land-taking, which was dominated by households possessing the resources, ships and followers necessary to undertake the journey.

Landnámabók preserves a more elaborate account of Ingólfr's departure. It associates him with Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson, described as his companion and blood-brother. According to the narrative, the two men became involved in a violent dispute in Norway after killing the sons of a powerful chieftain. Fearing retaliation, they decided to leave their homeland and seek new territory overseas.

The precise circumstances cannot be independently established, but the story reflects the importance of kinship, honour and personal allegiance in Scandinavian society. Political disputes between powerful households could have serious consequences, particularly when killings created obligations of vengeance and retaliation. For a chieftain with access to a ship and a loyal following, migration offered an opportunity to escape an unfavourable political situation while establishing a new source of wealth and authority.

The wider political circumstances also provide useful context. During the ninth century, Norwegian rulers were extending their influence over neighbouring territories and competing with regional chieftains. Later Icelandic tradition associated the settlement with the rise of Haraldr hárfagri, or Harald Fairhair, whose consolidation of royal authority became an important explanation for Norwegian emigration.

This should not be taken to mean that every Norwegian settler left because of Harald's rule. The movement towards Iceland involved several motivations, including access to land, family disputes, political rivalry and opportunities for independent settlement. Ingólfr's traditional departure belongs within this wider movement of Scandinavian expansion.

The Voyage to Iceland

Ari Þorgilsson provides an important chronological detail in Íslendingabók. He records that Ingólfr first travelled to Iceland when Haraldr hárfagri was sixteen years old, returning to Norway before making a second voyage several years later. On this later expedition, Ingólfr established his permanent settlement in the southwestern part of the island.

Hrafnmjölnir Ring

Ari's account is significant because it distinguishes between Ingólfr's initial visit and his eventual settlement. The traditional chronology places the beginning of Iceland's permanent Norse settlement around 870, with 874 becoming the conventional date associated with Ingólfr's arrival. Archaeological evidence supports the broader chronology, although the settlement process was not a single event and different parts of Iceland were occupied over a period of decades.

According to Landnámabók, Ingólfr and Hjörleifr travelled together towards Iceland, but their settlement plans eventually diverged. When land came into sight, the two companions separated and chose different locations along the southern coastline. Ingólfr initially came ashore at Ingólfshöfði, a headland in southeastern Iceland that preserves his name.

Hjörleifr settled further west, in the area of Hjörleifshöfði. Their settlements became part of the earliest phase of Norse occupation, although the fortunes of the two households differed considerably.

Ingólfr's eventual choice of southwestern Iceland would prove especially significant. The region offered favourable conditions for farming, access to coastal resources and a sheltered location suitable for maritime activity. Its natural advantages helped make the area an important centre of early settlement.

The story of Ingólfr's arrival is therefore not simply one of a traveller discovering an island. It forms part of a wider movement in which Scandinavian households established farms, claimed land and created the foundations of a new society beyond the political structures of mainland Scandinavia.

The Founding of Reykjavík

The most famous episode in Ingólfr's settlement concerns the high-seat pillars, known in Old Norse as öndvegissúlur. These were carved wooden posts associated with the elevated seat of a household's chieftain. They held considerable symbolic importance, representing the authority and standing of the household head within the community.

Ingólfr commanding his high seat pillars to be erected (Painting by Johan Peter Raadsig)

According to Landnámabók, Ingólfr took these pillars with him when he sailed for Iceland. As the island came into view, he cast them into the sea and declared that he would establish his farm wherever they came ashore. The act placed the choice of his new home in the hands of the gods, reflecting the religious significance attached to household objects and the establishment of a new dwelling.

After reaching land, Ingólfr settled temporarily at Ingólfshöfði. His enslaved followers were then sent along the coastline to search for the pillars. The narrative states that the search continued for three years before they were eventually discovered in the area of present-day Reykjavík. Ingólfr subsequently established his farm there, fulfilling the vow made during the voyage.

The story is one of the best-known episodes in Icelandic settlement tradition. Whether the pillars were actually cast into the sea as described cannot be demonstrated, but the account reflects the religious and social significance of the household's high seat. In pre-Christian Scandinavian society, the establishment of a farm was more than an economic undertaking. It created a household, established a claim to land and provided a place where religious and social customs could be maintained.

The name Reykjavík means "Smoky Bay", traditionally explained by the columns of steam rising from the area's geothermal springs. These natural features were among the most distinctive characteristics of the landscape encountered by the settlers. The bay also offered access to fishing grounds, good grazing land and a sheltered coastline suitable for landing boats.

Archaeological excavations in central Reykjavík have uncovered the remains of a Norse settlement dating to the late ninth century. The remains include a substantial longhouse, demonstrating that the area was occupied during the period associated with Ingólfr's arrival. The excavated settlement forms part of the archaeological evidence presented at Reykjavík's Settlement Exhibition in Aðalstræti, close to the city's oldest known settlement area.

The archaeological evidence confirms that Reykjavík was occupied during the earliest phase of Icelandic settlement. It does not, by itself, identify the inhabitants as Ingólfr and his household, but it provides an independent historical foundation for the traditional association between the area and Iceland's first settlers.

Hjörleifr's Death and the Westman Islands

While Ingólfr's settlement prospered, the account of Hjörleifr's expedition ends in violence. Landnámabók describes how Hjörleifr's enslaved followers, identified as Irishmen, killed him after suffering mistreatment. They subsequently abandoned his farm and escaped by sea, taking some of the household's possessions and livestock with them.

When Ingólfr learned of Hjörleifr's death, he pursued the fugitives. The narrative states that he tracked them to a group of islands off Iceland's southern coast and killed them in retaliation. These islands became known as the Vestmannaeyjar, or Westman Islands.

Algiz Rune Engraved Mjölnir

The name Vestmenn, meaning "men of the west", was used in Old Norse sources for people from the western regions of the Norse world, particularly the British Isles. The designation is frequently associated with Irish and Gaelic-speaking populations who were brought into Scandinavian households through raiding, trading and enslavement.

The episode provides a glimpse into the presence of people from the British Isles within the early Icelandic settlement. Norse expansion across the North Atlantic was not exclusively a movement of Scandinavian families. It also involved the movement of enslaved people, dependants and settlers from communities already established in the British Isles.

The story of Hjörleifr's murder is preserved in a medieval narrative and its individual details cannot all be independently confirmed. Nevertheless, the broader presence of people of Gaelic origin in early Iceland is supported by linguistic, genealogical and historical evidence. Norse settlement in Iceland emerged from a North Atlantic world in which Scandinavian and Gaelic populations had already been in close contact for generations.

The account also illustrates the violent conditions that could accompany the establishment of new households. Chieftains exercised authority over dependants and enslaved people, while disputes over treatment, property and personal allegiance could result in lethal retaliation.

The First Settlers and the Expansion of Landnám

Ingólfr's arrival formed part of a much larger settlement movement. During the late ninth and early tenth centuries, Norse-speaking families established farms across Iceland's habitable regions, particularly along the coastline and in the valleys extending inland. These settlers came from different parts of Scandinavia, as well as from Norse communities in the British Isles.

The process is traditionally known as landnám, meaning the taking or claiming of land. It involved more than the arrival of individual travellers. Settlers established farms, brought livestock, cleared woodland for pasture and cultivated fields where conditions permitted. They also claimed surrounding territory for grazing, hunting and the exploitation of natural resources.

Landnámabók preserves the names and genealogies of hundreds of early settlers, recording their origins, families and the lands they claimed. The work is particularly valuable for understanding how Icelanders later remembered the distribution of land and the formation of their earliest communities. Although it was compiled in medieval times and contains material that must be assessed critically, it preserves a substantial body of settlement tradition that would otherwise have been lost.

Ingólfr is credited with claiming an extensive territory in southwestern Iceland. The land associated with him reportedly extended from Hvalfjörður in the west towards the Ölfusá river in the south. Such claims reflected the importance of large grazing territories in an agricultural society dependent on livestock. Ingólfr's position as a prominent early settler would also have allowed him to distribute portions of this land to other households as the region became more densely occupied.

The archaeological record demonstrates that Iceland's settlement developed rapidly. Evidence from radiocarbon dating, material remains and volcanic ash layers has helped establish the chronology of the earliest farms. The widespread Landnám tephra, a layer of volcanic ash associated with the period immediately preceding settlement, provides an important chronological marker. Combined with other dating methods, it supports the beginning of large-scale Norse settlement after approximately 870.

By around 930, the settlement had developed sufficiently for Iceland's leading chieftains to establish the Alþingi, the national assembly traditionally regarded as one of the world's oldest surviving parliamentary institutions. The establishment of the assembly marked an important stage in the development of Icelandic society, providing a common political framework for communities that had initially developed around independent farms and regional chieftains.

Ingólfr's settlement belonged to the earliest generation of this process. His position in the southwest placed his household within a region that would become an important centre of Icelandic political and social life.

Ingólfr's Family and the Early Icelandic Community

Ingólfr's descendants continued to occupy positions of importance during the first generations of Icelandic settlement. His son, Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, is remembered in the medieval tradition as a prominent chieftain who helped establish early political institutions in southwestern Iceland.

Landnámabók associates Þorsteinn with the establishment of Kjalarnesþing, an early regional assembly. The institution is traditionally regarded as a precursor to the Alþingi, which was established at Þingvellir around 930. Although the precise development of Iceland's earliest assemblies is difficult to reconstruct, their emergence reflects the need for organised political arrangements as the number of farms and competing landholding families increased.

Þorsteinn's son, Þorkell máni Þorsteinsson, also became an influential figure. He is recorded as having served as lawspeaker of the Alþingi between approximately 970 and 984. The lawspeaker held an important position within Iceland's early legal system, responsible for reciting the law at the assembly and helping preserve the community's legal traditions.

These descendants helped maintain the standing of Ingólfr's family during the formative decades of the Icelandic commonwealth. Their prominence also illustrates how the earliest settlers became important figures in the genealogical and political traditions of later Icelandic society.

The settlement itself developed beyond the control of any single household. Iceland's geography encouraged the formation of regional communities, while the authority of individual chieftains rested largely on personal followings, landholding and alliances. Over time, the Alþingi provided a shared institution through which these competing interests could be negotiated.

Ingólfr's importance therefore extended beyond the establishment of one farm. His family became associated with the earliest organisation of Icelandic political life, while his settlement in the southwest provided a lasting geographical connection between the founding tradition and the later city of Reykjavík.

Ingólfr Arnarson's Historical Legacy

Ingólfr Arnarson occupies a distinctive place in Icelandic history as the traditional founder of its first permanent Norse settlement. His name is closely associated with the beginning of landnám and the establishment of Reykjavík, although the settlement of Iceland was a much broader process involving numerous families and communities.

The famous statue by Einar Jónsson, up on Arnarhóll in Reykjavík (Photo: Willem van de Poll CC0).

The medieval accounts preserve a picture of Ingólfr as a Norwegian chieftain who travelled west with his household, established a farm in southwestern Iceland and became the ancestor of an influential family. His story reflects the wider circumstances of Scandinavian expansion during the ninth century, when Norse-speaking communities were spreading across the North Atlantic and establishing new centres of settlement.

Modern archaeology has strengthened the historical framework surrounding this tradition. Excavations in Reykjavík and elsewhere in Iceland have confirmed that permanent settlement began during the period described by the medieval sources. The evidence does not verify every episode in Ingólfr's biography, but it demonstrates that the settlement tradition belongs to a genuine historical transformation of the island.

His reputation also became part of Iceland's national identity. Reykjavík's name, the traditional account of the high-seat pillars and the memory of the first settlers remain prominent features of the city's historical character. A statue of Ingólfr by the Icelandic sculptor Einar Jónsson was erected on Arnarhóll in Reykjavík in 1924, providing a public monument to the figure traditionally credited with founding the settlement.

Ingólfr's legacy is ultimately tied to the beginning of a new society in the North Atlantic. The arrival of the Norse settlers transformed Iceland from an island known primarily through the voyages of earlier travellers into a land of farms, regional communities and emerging political institutions. The settlement associated with Ingólfr became the starting point of a history that would eventually produce the Icelandic commonwealth and one of the richest medieval literary traditions in Europe.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who was Ingólfr Arnarson?

Ingólfr Arnarson was a Norwegian settler traditionally regarded as the first Norseman to establish a permanent settlement in Iceland during the late ninth century.

When did Ingólfr Arnarson settle in Iceland?

His settlement is traditionally dated to 874, although the wider process of Norse settlement began during the preceding years.

Was Ingólfr the first person to discover Iceland?

No. Earlier travellers, including Garðar Svavarsson and Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson, are recorded in medieval accounts as having reached Iceland before him. Ingólfr is remembered as the first permanent Norse settler.

Why was Reykjavík named Reykjavík?

The name means "Smoky Bay" and refers to the steam rising from the area's geothermal springs, which was a distinctive feature of the landscape.

What happened to Ingólfr's descendants?

His son Þorsteinn became an influential chieftain associated with an early regional assembly, while his grandson Þorkell máni later served as lawspeaker of the Alþingi.

References

1. Ari Þorgilsson, Íslendingabók (The Book of Icelanders), early twelfth century.

2. Landnámabók (The Book of Settlements), medieval Icelandic settlement account.

3. The Norse in Iceland — Oxford Handbook of Topics in Archaeology.

4. Verena Höfig, Finding a Founding Father: The Case of Ingólfur Arnarson, University of California, Berkeley.

5. Reykjavík: UNESCO City of Literature — History and Language.

6. Archaeology and Text: A Historical Reconstruction of the Settlement of Iceland.

7. The Settlement of Iceland and the Archaeological Evidence — Viking Archaeology.

8. Reykjavík City Museum — Settlement Exhibition.